The microbial and physicochemical quality of bottled and domestic water in Gaborone, Botswana

Abstract

Water is an essential resource of imperative use the world over and affects the well-being of each individual on a daily basis. Governments have put measures in place to provide acceptable, clean and safe drinking water. Several developed countries continue to provide tap water meeting basic drinking standards. Unfortunately, there are challenges with the safety of water and diarrhoea as an example remains one of the problematic outbreaks worldwide especially in countries where water quality and sanitation are compromised for one reason or another. Botswana like the rest of the world seasonally experiences diarrhoea outbreaks which is usually recognised in the under 5-year-olds because it is a notifiable disease. Water quality has been identified by WHO as a possible determinant for gastro enteritis. This study was conducted in Gaborone, Botswana which is also the capital city and attests to a lot of affluence and therefore the community appreciates the convenience of consuming bottled water. The increased utilisation of bottled water over domestic (municipal) water supplies seem to stem from the assumption that domestic (municipal) water is not as safe. It was therefore vital to assess the drinking water options of Gaborone community and further examine the factors that determine their choices. Moreover, this study assessed the quality and safety of both bottled and domestic water. Concomitant to the above, this study was extended to understand the environmental health risks of water bottling facilities. The data collection tools used were questionnaires for the public, environmental health risk assessment (observation schedule) for water bottling facilities and microbial and physicochemical analysis of domestic and bottled water using approved standards. Data was coded through Microsoft Excel package and further analysed using SPSS. The study indicates that 56.4% of participants preferred bottled water over other types of water and their preferences` were influenced by the perception that their choice of water was safe. Understanding of the health risks associated with water through water hygiene was assessed, and a majority of the participants indicated diarrhoea and other gastrointestinal diseases as major health risks. Of the schools that participated in the study for domestic water analysis, 2.9% had its water not compliant to the microbial water standards and 0.99% of domestic water supplies samples were found to be positive for total coliforms and Escherichia coli; the presence of these organisms in drinking water indicates recent faecal contamination. It also indicated that 14.3% of bottling facilities water samples were not compliant and 12.85% of the samples tested positive for Pseudomonas aeruginosa; an opportunistic human pathogen capable of causing widespread infections in burn and immune-compromised patients. From the overall compliance level of environmental risk assessment of facilities the process flow and/or procedure for maintenance, cleaning of equipment and personal hygiene scored 59%, 51% and 65% respectively; which are factors that highly likely to contribute to the contamination of the bottled water products thus potentially affecting the product quality as per the BOS 306 - Bottled water code of hygienic practice. The recommendation is made to the effect that health promotion and education policies should be strengthened to ensure that the general populace is knowledgeable on the health risks associated with water for ease of their control. Consumer education on water safety should also be upscaled for them to make informed choices with the types of water preferences. An in-depth analysis of recorded outbreaks to determine their root causes as its quite vivid that water may be a contributing factor to many. Stricter monitoring protocols for water bottling and filling facilities should be developed to reduce gaps in compliance with National Regulatory Standards of Botswana.